Answer The Following Question.
1. Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:
Ans: (I) Shifting cultivators:
European colonists viewed shifting cultivation as harmful, as it interfered with commercial timber forestry and risked fires. Consequently, the colonial government banned this practice, leading to the loss of livelihoods and displacement of cultivators from their forest homes.
(II) Nomadic and pastoralist communities:
Nomadic communities, such as the Korava, Karacha, and Yerukula, were affected by colonial policies. They were labeled as ‘criminal tribes’ and forced to work in mines, factories, and plantations under supervision, losing their traditional livelihoods.
(III) Firms trading in timber/forest products:
European timber firms were granted exclusive rights to trade in forest products. Local practices like hunting and grazing were restricted by law to preserve timber resources for the colonial powers.
(IV) Plantation owners:
Large tracts of forests were cleared to make way for plantations growing tea, coffee, and rubber for European markets. Plantation owners, mostly European, were given land at very low prices, leading to deforestation for commercial crops.
(V) Kings/British officials engaged in hunting:
Forest laws restricted hunting for the local population, depriving them of a key resource. However, hunting became a leisure activity for British officials and local kings, often leading to the near extinction of some species due to excessive hunting.
2. What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java?
Ans: (I) Both the British in Bastar and the Dutch in Java required timber for building railways.
(II) The colonial authorities in both regions enacted forest laws that stripped local people of their customary rights to the forests.
(III) Both the British and Dutch banned shifting cultivation, arguing it was detrimental to the forests.
(IV) In Bastar, villagers were allowed to stay in forests under the condition that they provide free labor to the forest department. In Java, the Dutch similarly exempted villages from taxes if they provided free labor.
3. Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:
Ans: (a) Railways:
Wood was used to make sleepers for railway tracks, and the expansion of railways led to the cutting down of large areas of forests for timber.
(b) Shipbuilding:
The Royal Navy required timber, particularly oak, for shipbuilding, leading the British to exploit forests in their colonies to meet the demand, resulting in large-scale deforestation.
(c) Agricultural Expansion:
With the increase in population, there was a demand for more land for farming. Forests were cleared to make way for agricultural expansion, contributing significantly to deforestation.
(d) Commercial Farming of Trees:
The clearing of forests for commercial farming led to the loss of biodiversity as forests were replaced by monoculture plantations of specific crops.
(e) Tea/Coffee Plantations:
Colonial authorities cleared vast tracts of forest to make room for tea and coffee plantations, further contributing to the loss of forests.
(f) Adivasis and Other Peasant Users:
Adivasis and peasants practiced shifting cultivation, which required cutting down trees. This, combined with soil degradation, reduced the chances of natural regrowth of forests.
4. Why are forests affected by wars?
Ans: Forests are affected by wars due to their strategic importance. Forests provide essential materials such as timber for building military infrastructure like guard posts and towers. Additionally, the scorched earth policy is used during wartime to prevent enemy forces from gaining control of valuable resources, including forests. For instance, during World War II, when Japan invaded Indonesia, the Dutch burned large areas of forest to deny the Japanese access to timber. Afterward, the Japanese exploited the forests extensively for war purposes, leading to long-term ecological damage.
Here are the answers to the questions related to the changes in the lives of pastoralists due to colonial policies: