Write a Note on:
a) Giuseppe Mazzini:
Ans:
– Born in 1807 in Genoa, he was an Italian revolutionary.
– He joined the Carbonari secret society.
– Exiled in 1831 after attempting a revolution in Liguria.
– Founded ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne.
– Members from Poland, Italy, France, and the German states, all young and like-minded, were part of these societies.
b) Count Camilo de Cavour:
Ans:
– He served as the chief minister in the state of Sardinia-Piedmont.
– He spearheaded the movement for religious unity in Italy.
– His proficiency in French surpassed that of Italian.
– He forged a diplomatic alliance with France.
– This alliance contributed to Sardinia-Piedmont’s victory over Austria in 1859, leading to the liberation of the northern part of Italy.
c) The Greek War of Independence:
Ans:
– Greek revolutionaries waged a successful independence war against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829.
– Western European countries provided support to the Greek cause.
– Greece received praise from numerous artists and poets.
– The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 officially recognized Greece as an independent nation.
d) The Frankfurt Parliament:
Ans:
– The All-German National Assembly comprised middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans from various regions.
– It convened on May 18th at St. Paul’s Church in the city of Frankfurt.
– This assembly advocated for a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary oversight for the German nation.
– It encountered resistance from the military and aristocracy.
– The assembly was dissolved on May 31st, 1849.
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles:
Ans:
– Granting political rights to women sparked controversy within the liberal movement.
– Women established their own political association, through which they launched a newspaper.
– Suffrage was denied to women during Assembly election days.
– Women were relegated to the role of observers, permitted only in the visitor’s gallery.
2.What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?
Ans:
– The concept of “la patrie” (the fatherland) and “le citoyen” (the citizen) emphasized a united community where all states had equal rights under the constitution.
– The royal standard was replaced by the tricolor French flag.
– The Estates General underwent transformation, becoming the National Assembly, consisting of elected citizens.
– New oaths, hymns, and commemorations of martyrs were instituted for the nation.
– A centralized administrative system enacted uniform laws for the entire nation.
3.Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Ans:
– Marianne represented France, while Germania symbolized Germany.
– They embodied concepts like ‘liberty’ and ‘the republic’.
– These allegorical figures allowed the public to connect with symbolic meanings, fostering a sense of national unity.
4.Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Ans:
– By the 1800s, nationalist sentiments were burgeoning among the middle-class in Germany.
– In 1848, they sought to unify the various German states into a nation-state.
– However, their efforts were suppressed by a coalition of the military and monarchy, which sought support from Prussia.
– Prussia emerged as the leader of the German unification movement.
– The Prussian bureaucracy and army rallied behind Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck.
– Through victories over Austria, France, and Denmark, Prussia completed the process of unification.
– In January 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative. system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
Ans:
Napoleon implemented several changes to enhance the efficiency of the administrative system:
– In 1804, he introduced the Napoleonic Code, also known as the Civil Code, which established equality before the law and recognized the right to property.
– The administration was streamlined, liberating peasants from serfdom and dismantling the feudal system.
– The Guild system was abolished in towns, and improvements were made to communication and transportation networks.
– These reforms granted newfound freedom to peasants, businessmen, artisans, and other workers.
Discuss
1.Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Ans:
During the revolution of 1848, liberals advocated for national movements, garnering support from the educated middle class while inciting revolt among the unemployed, impoverished, and starving workers across Europe.
– In France, widespread food shortages and unemployment in 1848 fueled uprisings.
– Men and women in other parts of Europe joined forces to demand the establishment of nation-states based on parliamentary principles.
– Key ideas championed by liberals included:
i) Political demands for a constitution that unified nationalism with parliamentary administration.
ii) Social aspirations to eradicate class-based biases and birth rights.
iii) Economic goals centered on property rights and the abolition of restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to thegrowth of nationalism in Europe.
Ans:
Three examples illustrating the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe are:
Romanticism: This cultural movement aimed to foster national unity by evoking shared histories and heritages among Europeans. Emphasizing emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings, Romanticism shaped and expressed nationalist sentiments. European poets and artists used their work to support nationalist causes, such as the Greek struggle for independence, thus promoting a sense of national identity.
Folk Culture: Folk songs, poetry, and dances played a significant role in spreading the spirit of nationalism throughout Europe. Recording and collecting diverse folk cultures helped build national consciousness. Ordinary people conveyed messages of nationalism to varied audiences through these cultural expressions.
Language: Language played a crucial role in nurturing nationalist sentiments in Europe. For instance, during Russian occupation, Poland faced challenges, including the removal of the Polish language from schools and the imposition of Russian. Following their defeat in 1831, Poles utilized language as a tool of national resistance. The widespread use of language in public gatherings helped disseminate messages of national unity and resistance against oppression.
3. Though a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19th century.
Ans:
Development of the German and Italian nation-states in the 19th century followed similar trajectories:
– Political Fragmentation: In the mid-19th century, both Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms, each ruled by various princely houses.
– Revolutionary Uprising: The 19th century witnessed uprisings and revolutions led by middle-class educated liberals. In Germany, the middle class formed the German National Assembly in 1848. In Italy, figures like Giuseppe Mazzini attempted to establish a unitary Italian Republic during the 1830s. However, these revolutionary efforts failed to achieve unity in both countries in 1831 and 1848.
– Unification with Military Support: The failure of the revolutions ultimately led to unification through military and aristocratic means. Germany was proclaimed as a unified nation in 1871, with Otto von Bismarck orchestrating the unification process with the backing of the Prussian bureaucracy and army. Similarly, Italy achieved unification through military efforts and the support of key figures, culminating in the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
4.How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans:
In Britain, the formation of the nation-state did not occur through sudden revolution.
– The primary identities of the inhabitants of the British Isles were English, Welsh, Scottish, or Irish.
– The Union Act of 1707 between Scotland and England established the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’, resulting in English dominance over Scotland. Scottish culture and political institutions were suppressed as a consequence.
– Scots were prohibited from speaking the Gaelic language and wearing their national dress.
– England supported Protestant interests in Ireland, leading to Protestant dominance over the predominantly Catholic country.
– Symbols such as the British flag, national anthem, and language were promoted as representations of the new Britain.
5.Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans:
Tensions with nationalists emerged in the Balkans as the concept of romantic nationalism gained traction, while the region was under Ottoman rule.
– Multiple Slavic communities in the Balkans began to agitate for independent governance.
– Competition for territory among these communities intensified, fueled by mutual jealousy.
– The presence of imperial powers in the Balkans exacerbated the situation.
– England, Germany, Russia, and Austro-Hungary sought increased influence in the region.
– These tensions ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
1.Multiple choice questions.
(i) Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-west corridor?
a.Mumbai and Nagpur
b.Silcher and Purbandar
c.Mumbai and Kolkata
d.Nagpur and Siligudi
Ans:(b) Silcher and Purbander
(ii) Which mode of transportation reduces trans-shipment losses and delays?
a.Railways
b.Roadways
c.Pipelines
d.Waterways
Ans: c. Pipelines
(iii) Which one of the following states is not connected with the H.V.J. pipeline?
a.Madhya Pradesh
b.Maharashtra
c Gujarat’
d.Uttar Pradesh
Ans:(b) Maharashtra
(iv) Which one of the following ports is the deepest land-locked and well protected port along the east coast?
a.Chennai
b.Paradip
c Tuticorin
d.Vishakhapatnam
Ans:(d) Vishakhapatnam
(v) Which one of the following is the most important modes of transportation in India?
a. Pipeline
b. Railways
c. Roadways
d. Airways
Ans: (b) Railways
(vi) Which one of the following terms is used to describe trade between two or more countries?
a. Internal trade
b. International trade
c. External trade
d. Local trade
Ans: (b ) International Trade
2.Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
i. Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
The Three States are
Maharashtra
Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh
The crop grown is cotton.
ii. What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three main features of the type of soil.
The type of soil found in river deltas is Alluvial Soil, characterized by the following:
Very fertile, making it suitable for cultivation of crops.
Consists of various proportions of sand, silt, and clay.
Contains a good quantity of potash, lime, and phosphoric acid, which is beneficial for the growth of paddy and sugarcane.
iii. What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
The main techniques that can be used are as follows:
Contour plowing: Plowing along the contour lines of the slope instead of up and down helps to reduce water runoff and prevent soil erosion.
Terrace farming: Constructing terraces along the slopes helps to break the flow of water, reducing its erosive force and allowing it to soak into the soil gradually.
Strip cropping: Allowing strips of grass to grow between the crops helps to reduce water runoff, trap sediment, and prevent soil erosion.
Answer the following questions in about 120 words.
1. Explain the land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not increased much since 1960-61?
The utilization of land is influenced by both natural factors like topography, climate, and soil types, as well as human factors such as population density, technological advancements, and cultural practices. The distribution of cultivated land varies significantly across states. For instance, it constitutes over 80 percent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana, whereas it is less than 10 percent in states like Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The forest area in the country falls far short of the target of 33 percent outlined in the National Forest Policy of 1952, which was deemed crucial for maintaining ecological balance. Some land is classified as wasteland, comprising rocky, arid, and desert regions, while land allocated for non-agricultural purposes includes areas used for settlements, roads, railways, and industrial activities.
However, prolonged and unregulated exploitation of land has led to its degradation over time, highlighting the urgent need for conservation and sustainable land management practices.
2. How has technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources?
There are several reasons for this phenomenon:
Large-scale production has resulted in the overutilization of resources.
Technological advancements have facilitated greater exploitation of resources.
Improved medical and health resources have led to a substantial increase in resource consumption.
Technical and economic development has increased resource consumption due to large-scale production, technological advancements enabling efficient resource exploitation, and improved health resources driving higher living standards, all contributing to greater demand for resources and emphasizing the importance of sustainable practices.
Write a Note on:
a) Giuseppe Mazzini:
Ans:
– Born in 1807 in Genoa, he was an Italian revolutionary.
– He joined the Carbonari secret society.
– Exiled in 1831 after attempting a revolution in Liguria.
– Founded ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne.
– Members from Poland, Italy, France, and the German states, all young and like-minded, were part of these societies.
b) Count Camilo de Cavour:
Ans:
– He served as the chief minister in the state of Sardinia-Piedmont.
– He spearheaded the movement for religious unity in Italy.
– His proficiency in French surpassed that of Italian.
– He forged a diplomatic alliance with France.
– This alliance contributed to Sardinia-Piedmont’s victory over Austria in 1859, leading to the liberation of the northern part of Italy.
c) The Greek War of Independence:
Ans:
– Greek revolutionaries waged a successful independence war against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829.
– Western European countries provided support to the Greek cause.
– Greece received praise from numerous artists and poets.
– The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 officially recognized Greece as an independent nation.
d) The Frankfurt Parliament:
Ans:
– The All-German National Assembly comprised middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans from various regions.
– It convened on May 18th at St. Paul’s Church in the city of Frankfurt.
– This assembly advocated for a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary oversight for the German nation.
– It encountered resistance from the military and aristocracy.
– The assembly was dissolved on May 31st, 1849.
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles:
Ans:
– Granting political rights to women sparked controversy within the liberal movement.
– Women established their own political association, through which they launched a newspaper.
– Suffrage was denied to women during Assembly election days.
– Women were relegated to the role of observers, permitted only in the visitor’s gallery.
2.What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?
Ans:
– The concept of “la patrie” (the fatherland) and “le citoyen” (the citizen) emphasized a united community where all states had equal rights under the constitution.
– The royal standard was replaced by the tricolor French flag.
– The Estates General underwent transformation, becoming the National Assembly, consisting of elected citizens.
– New oaths, hymns, and commemorations of martyrs were instituted for the nation.
– A centralized administrative system enacted uniform laws for the entire nation.
3.Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Ans:
– Marianne represented France, while Germania symbolized Germany.
– They embodied concepts like ‘liberty’ and ‘the republic’.
– These allegorical figures allowed the public to connect with symbolic meanings, fostering a sense of national unity.
4.Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Ans:
– By the 1800s, nationalist sentiments were burgeoning among the middle-class in Germany.
– In 1848, they sought to unify the various German states into a nation-state.
– However, their efforts were suppressed by a coalition of the military and monarchy, which sought support from Prussia.
– Prussia emerged as the leader of the German unification movement.
– The Prussian bureaucracy and army rallied behind Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck.
– Through victories over Austria, France, and Denmark, Prussia completed the process of unification.
– In January 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative. system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
Ans:
Napoleon implemented several changes to enhance the efficiency of the administrative system:
– In 1804, he introduced the Napoleonic Code, also known as the Civil Code, which established equality before the law and recognized the right to property.
– The administration was streamlined, liberating peasants from serfdom and dismantling the feudal system.
– The Guild system was abolished in towns, and improvements were made to communication and transportation networks.
– These reforms granted newfound freedom to peasants, businessmen, artisans, and other workers.
Discuss
1.Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Ans:
During the revolution of 1848, liberals advocated for national movements, garnering support from the educated middle class while inciting revolt among the unemployed, impoverished, and starving workers across Europe.
– In France, widespread food shortages and unemployment in 1848 fueled uprisings.
– Men and women in other parts of Europe joined forces to demand the establishment of nation-states based on parliamentary principles.
– Key ideas championed by liberals included:
i) Political demands for a constitution that unified nationalism with parliamentary administration.
ii) Social aspirations to eradicate class-based biases and birth rights.
iii) Economic goals centered on property rights and the abolition of restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
2.Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to thegrowth of nationalism in Europe.
Ans:
Three examples illustrating the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe are:
Romanticism: This cultural movement aimed to foster national unity by evoking shared histories and heritages among Europeans. Emphasizing emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings, Romanticism shaped and expressed nationalist sentiments. European poets and artists used their work to support nationalist causes, such as the Greek struggle for independence, thus promoting a sense of national identity.
Folk Culture: Folk songs, poetry, and dances played a significant role in spreading the spirit of nationalism throughout Europe. Recording and collecting diverse folk cultures helped build national consciousness. Ordinary people conveyed messages of nationalism to varied audiences through these cultural expressions.
Language: Language played a crucial role in nurturing nationalist sentiments in Europe. For instance, during Russian occupation, Poland faced challenges, including the removal of the Polish language from schools and the imposition of Russian. Following their defeat in 1831, Poles utilized language as a tool of national resistance. The widespread use of language in public gatherings helped disseminate messages of national unity and resistance against oppression.
3.Though a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the 19th century.
Ans:
Development of the German and Italian nation-states in the 19th century followed similar trajectories:
– Political Fragmentation: In the mid-19th century, both Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms, each ruled by various princely houses.
– Revolutionary Uprising: The 19th century witnessed uprisings and revolutions led by middle-class educated liberals. In Germany, the middle class formed the German National Assembly in 1848. In Italy, figures like Giuseppe Mazzini attempted to establish a unitary Italian Republic during the 1830s. However, these revolutionary efforts failed to achieve unity in both countries in 1831 and 1848.
– Unification with Military Support: The failure of the revolutions ultimately led to unification through military and aristocratic means. Germany was proclaimed as a unified nation in 1871, with Otto von Bismarck orchestrating the unification process with the backing of the Prussian bureaucracy and army. Similarly, Italy achieved unification through military efforts and the support of key figures, culminating in the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.
4.How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans:
In Britain, the formation of the nation-state did not occur through sudden revolution.
– The primary identities of the inhabitants of the British Isles were English, Welsh, Scottish, or Irish.
– The Union Act of 1707 between Scotland and England established the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’, resulting in English dominance over Scotland. Scottish culture and political institutions were suppressed as a consequence.
– Scots were prohibited from speaking the Gaelic language and wearing their national dress.
– England supported Protestant interests in Ireland, leading to Protestant dominance over the predominantly Catholic country.
– Symbols such as the British flag, national anthem, and language were promoted as representations of the new Britain.
5.Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans:
Tensions with nationalists emerged in the Balkans as the concept of romantic nationalism gained traction, while the region was under Ottoman rule.
– Multiple Slavic communities in the Balkans began to agitate for independent governance.
– Competition for territory among these communities intensified, fueled by mutual jealousy.
– The presence of imperial powers in the Balkans exacerbated the situation.
– England, Germany, Russia, and Austro-Hungary sought increased influence in the region.
– These tensions ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
1.Explain:
(a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement.
Ans:
Colonization significantly impacted people’s freedom, leading to a surge in nationalist sentiments during the struggle against imperial domination. The shared sense of oppression and exploitation became a unifying factor for individuals from diverse backgrounds, contributing to the growth of nationalist ideals. Consequently, the development of nationalism in the colonies is closely tied to anticolonial movements.
(b) How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India.
Ans:
During the First World War, the British army enforced compulsory recruitment from rural areas in India. To fund defense expenses, high customs duties and income taxes were imposed. Additionally, between 1918 and 1921, crop failures occurred in many parts of India, leading to severe food shortages. These circumstances sparked widespread anger and opposition against British colonial rule, pushing the Indian national movement towards a more resolute and decisive direction.
(c) Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act.
Ans:
The Rowlatt Act was hastily passed by the Imperial Legislative Council despite opposition from Indian members. It granted the government autocratic powers to suppress political activities and detain political prisoners without trial for up to two years. This act provoked outrage among Indians as it was blatantly undemocratic and oppressive, infringing upon national sentiments and dignity.
(d) Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Ans:
Gandhiji made the decision to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement in response to several incidents of violence committed by the masses, notably the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922. During this event, clashes erupted between the people and the police, resulting in the setting ablaze of a police station. Gandhiji believed that the populace was not adequately prepared for a large-scale struggle, and that individuals engaging in satyagraha needed proper training for non-violent demonstrations.
2.What is meant by the idea Satyagraha?
Ans:
Satyagraha, derived from the Sanskrit words “satya” meaning “truth” and “agraha” meaning “insistence” or “holding firmly to,” embodies the concept of “holding strongly to truth.” It represents a form of civil resistance characterized by peaceful means. Satyagraha introduced a novel approach to mobilizing the masses, emphasizing the significance of truth-seeking. It suggested that when the cause is just and the pursuit is for justice, confronting oppressors does not necessitate physical force. Essentially, Satyagraha advocates for nonviolent resistance against oppression when aligned with righteous principles.
(a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Ans:
On April 13, 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed grounds of Jallianwala Bagh, some to protest the British government’s harsh tactics and others to attend the annual Baisakhi Fair. Unaware that Martial Law had been imposed in the city, these citizens found themselves trapped as General Dyer, the commanding officer, ordered the exit points of the Bagh to be barricaded. He then ordered British soldiers to open fire on the unarmed civilians. Dyer’s objective was to instill fear among satyagrahis and create a “moral effect” through terror. The indiscriminate firing resulted in the deaths and injuries of hundreds of innocent civilians, including women and children, sparking national outrage. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre remains one of the deadliest incidents in Indian history.
(b) The Simon Commission
Ans:
The British government formed a commission to examine the 1919 Government of India Act, aiming to scrutinize its implementation and propose further reforms to the administrative structure. Named after its chairman, Sir John Simon, the commission faced opposition from Indian nationalists due to the absence of any Indian members. Consequently, when the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was met with the widespread slogan “Go Back.” All major political parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the ensuing debate.
3.Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.
Ans:
The depiction of Germania served as a symbol for the German nation, while the image of Bharat Mata represented the Indian nation.
– Both images inspired nationalists to tirelessly strive for the unification of their respective countries and the establishment of liberal societies.
– Unlike the portrayal of Germania, Bharat Mata’s image is characterized by its religious connotations.
– Abanindranath Tagore’s painting of Bharat Mata embodies attributes such as knowledge, sustenance, attire, and certain ascetic qualities. In another portrayal, Bharat Mata is depicted holding a Trishul while standing alongside a lion and an elephant, symbols of power and authority. This depiction bears resemblance to the representation of Germania, who is depicted wielding a sword and shield.
Discuss
1.List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.
Ans:
The Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921 witnessed participation from various segments of society, including the urban middle class comprising lawyers, teachers, and headmasters, as well as students, peasants, tribals, and laborers.
The middle class supported the movement with the belief that boycotting foreign goods would stimulate the sales of local textiles and handlooms.
Peasants were motivated to join the movement to escape the tyranny of oppressive landlords and the burden of high taxes imposed by the colonial government.
Plantation workers joined the agitation with the aspiration of attaining the freedom to move unrestrictedly within and outside of plantations, as well as acquiring land in their own villages.
2.Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism.
Ans:
The Salt March stood as a potent symbol of anti-colonial resistance as it targeted a commodity, salt, which was essential for both the rich and the poor. The imposition of the salt tax and the government’s monopoly on its production were viewed as oppressive administrative measures. Gandhiji’s leadership during the Salt March was instrumental in its success, as he engaged with a large number of common people, imparting to them the principles of swaraj (self-rule) and nonviolence. By peacefully defying the law and manufacturing salt despite government orders, Gandhiji set a precedent for the entire nation on how to resist oppressors without resorting to violence. The Civil Disobedience Movement emerged as a direct consequence of the Salt March in 1930.
3.Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?
Ans:
Due to divergent opinions, political leaders fiercely debated the issue of separate electorates. While some advocates for minorities and Dalits argued that political empowerment was essential to address their social disadvantages, others, including Gandhiji, expressed concerns that separate electorates could hinder their integration into society. Moreover, there was apprehension that the establishment of distinct electorates would eventually lead to the fragmentation of the country, as each community or class would seek separate representation.
1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
Ans:
Examples of various types of global exchanges that occurred before the seventeenth century include:
– Europe and Asian countries traded spices and textiles in exchange for gold.
– During the colonial period, America exchanged food and gold with European nations.
2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.
Ans:
The Europeans were immune to diseases that the natives of other regions were not. Consequently, when these diseases were introduced to non-European populations, they suffered significantly, weakening their communities and depleting their resources. This vulnerability made it easier for Europeans to colonize these regions.
3.Write a note to explain the effects of the following:
(a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.
Ans:
The abolition of the Corn Laws resulted in British farmers migrating to cities and pursuing alternative professions. This shift ultimately contributed to a significant increase in industrial growth.
(b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa.
Ans:
The devastation caused by rinderpest destroyed the livelihoods of many Africans, making them more vulnerable to European colonization.
(c) The death of the working-age in Europe because of the World War.
Ans:
Due to the loss of young men in the World Wars, women entered the workforce.
(d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.
Ans:
The Great Depression caused a significant decline in export prices, resulting in loss of revenue for Indian farmers. Despite this, the British Government did not reduce taxes, leading to widespread unrest in India. These grievances ultimately paved the way for Indian independence a few years later.
(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
Ans:
The relocation of production to Asian countries spurred manifold growth in their economies and led to a surge in employment opportunities. This resulted in increased profits for multinational corporations (MNCs) and contributed to the prosperity of the Western nations. Consequently, Global Production Networks were established, connecting various regions and facilitating economic interdependence.
4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
Ans:
Here are two examples from history demonstrating the impact of technology on food availability:
1.Faster railways, lighter wagons, and larger ships enabled the rapid transport of food, reducing its cost.
2.Refrigerated ships facilitated the transportation of perishable goods to distant nations.
5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?
Ans:
The Bretton Woods Agreement was signed in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA, establishing the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. These institutions were created to maintain global economic stability and promote employment in industrialized nations.
6. Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.
Ans:
The three types of movements or
flows within international economic exchange are:
– Trade Flow
– Human Capital Flows
– Capital Flows
Examples of these flows in
historical context include:
– Foods such as potatoes, soybeans, groundnuts, and chillies were introduced to India from America through trade.
– Indentured laborers were sent from India to work in mines, plantations, and factories abroad, contributing to British colonial domination.
– The United Kingdom obtained loans from the USA to finance the World War. As India was a British colony, the repercussions of these loans were felt in India, impacting the Indian economy and its people.
7. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
Ans:
The Great Depression was caused by the following factors:
– Increased income and prosperity in the USA, which was less affected by World War I. This led to a
rise in demand, but due to insufficient production, inflation increased.
– The crash of stock exchanges in 1929, which sparked panic among investors and depositors, resulting in loss
of wealth and a tendency to hoard money.
– Bank closures and a lack of access to capital for investments, leading to the failure of many companies.4
8. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?
Ans:
The term “G-77 countries” refers to a group of 77 nations that advocated for a new international economic order, seeking greater control over their natural resources. The establishment of the G-77 was a response to the activities of the Bretton Woods institutions, namely the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which primarily catered to the financial needs of industrialized and developed countries.
Write in Brief
Explain the following:
(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
(b) In the seventeenth-century merchants from towns in Europe began
employing peasants and artisans within the villages.
(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.
(d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.
Ans:
(a) The introduction of the Spinning Jenny faced opposition from British women workers because it accelerated the spinning process, leading to a reduction in the demand for labor. Women employed in the woolen sector had legitimate concerns about potential job losses. They had been reliant on hand spinning until then, but the advent of the new machine jeopardized their livelihoods.
(b) The guild of trade and commerce held sway over various aspects of the market, including raw materials, personnel, and manufacturing of commodities in urban areas. Merchants seeking to expand production by hiring additional workers encountered obstacles as a result. Consequently, they turned to rural peasants and artisans for assistance.
(c) By the end of the eighteenth century, Surat’s port experienced a decline due to the growing influence of European firms in India’s trade. These firms were granted several concessions by local authorities, along with exclusive trading rights. Consequently, traditional ports like Surat and Hooghly, which had been operated by local merchants, began to decline. Exports stagnated, and local banks went bankrupt.
(d) The English East India Company recruited Gomasthas to achieve two objectives: to eliminate the presence of traders and brokers and establish direct control over weavers, and to prevent weavers from engaging with other customers by providing them with advances and exerting control. Weavers who received loans and advances from the Company became indebted to the British in this manner.
2.Write True or False against each statement:
(a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80 percent of the total workforce in
Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.
Ans: False
(b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the eighteenth century.
Ans: True
(c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from
India.
Ans: False
3.Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation.
Ans:
The period of industrialization that preceded the establishment of factory systems is referred to as proto-industrialization. During this phase, there was significant industrial manufacturing on a large scale aimed at the global market, predating the emergence of factories. Proto-industrialization encompasses this early stage of industrial history.
Discuss
1.Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?
Ans:
Certain industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe preferred hand labor over machinery for several reasons:
– Machine-made clothing failed to meet market expectations for a wide range of styles, colors, and types. Only human skills could produce intricate designs and colors.
– During the Victorian era, nobles and other upper-class individuals preferred exclusively handcrafted items.
– Machines were expensive, inefficient, difficult to repair, and required substantial capital investments.
– Labor was readily available at modest wages during this period.
– Seasonal labor was sufficient for businesses that operated seasonally.
2. How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers?
Ans:
The English East India Company employed various methods to acquire silk and cotton from weavers, including:
– Appointing paid supervisors known as Gomasthas, who were responsible for overseeing the weavers, gathering supplies, and assessing the quality of the cloth.
– Implementing a system of advances and loans to prevent Company weavers from engaging with other buyers.
3.Imagine that you have been asked to write an article for an encyclopedia on Britain and the history of cotton. Write your piece using information from the entire chapter.
Ans:
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants engaged in trade with rural communities involved in the textile industry. A clothier would procure wool from a stapler, transport it to spinners, and then deliver the yarn to weavers, fullers, and dyers for further processing. London served as the final destination for these goods.
This period in British manufacturing history is known as protoindustrialization, during which factories were not yet integral to the industry. Instead, a network of commercial exchanges existed.
Cotton emerged as a significant industrial symbol, experiencing rapid growth in output in the late nineteenth century. This growth was facilitated by the introduction of cotton mills, new machinery, and improved management practices. Cotton dominated the industry until around 1840.
Many textile industry workers viewed new inventions with disdain and contempt, as machines meant less manual labor and fewer job opportunities. The Spinning Jenny, for instance, faced opposition from women in the woolen industry who feared displacement in the labor market.
Before technical advancements, Britain imported a significant amount of silk and cotton from India. Fine Indian textiles were highly valued in England. However, with the East India Company’s political control, India’s weavers and textile industry were exploited for Britain’s benefit, leading to Manchester becoming a hub for cotton production.
Consequently, India became a major consumer of British cotton products. During the First World War, British factories were primarily focused on meeting wartime demands, resulting in increased demand for Indian textiles. The history of cotton in the United Kingdom is characterized by fluctuations in demand and supply.
4. Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?
Ans:
During the First World War, India’s industrial output experienced growth for several reasons:
– The increasing demand for a wider range of products led to the establishment of new factories and the expansion of existing ones.
– A large number of new employees were hired, and existing workers were required to work longer hours to meet the heightened demand.
– Indian businesses seized the opportunity to cater to the needs of the Indian market with their goods, filling gaps previously occupied by British imports. This contributed to the growth of India’s industrial production.
– Britain’s industrial focus shifted towards producing and supplying war supplies, leading to a halt in the export of British goods or clothing to colonial markets like India.
– British colonial authorities also placed orders for jute bags, fabrics for army uniforms, tents, leather boots, horse and mule saddles, and other combat necessities, further boosting India’s industrial output.
Write in brief
1. Give reasons for the following:
a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century.
d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.
Ans:
(a) Italian explorer Marco Polo visited China and learned about woodblock printing. Upon his return to Italy in 1295, he brought this knowledge back with him, and gradually, it spread from Italy to other parts of Europe.
(b) In 1517, religious reformer Martin Luther wrote the Ninety-Five Theses, criticizing the corrupt practices of the Catholic Church. He posted these theses on the church door in Wittenberg, and soon, thousands of copies were printed, spreading Luther’s ideas among the people. Luther was deeply impacted by the power of printing, which fueled the Reformation movement and eventually led to the birth of Protestantism.
(c) Print and popular literature encouraged various interpretations of religious beliefs and ideas. In the 16th century, Manocchio, a mill worker in Italy, began reading books available in his area. He offered a new interpretation of the Bible and developed views on God and creation that angered the Roman Catholic Church. Manocchio was summoned twice and eventually executed as the Roman Catholic Church initiated its inquisition.
(d) Mahatma Gandhi expressed these words in 1922 during the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22). According to him, the liberty of speech, press, and association are essential for any nation’s survival. Gandhi emphasized that these liberties were crucial for freeing the country from foreign domination.
2.Write short notes to show what you know about:
a) The Gutenberg Press
b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book
c) The Vernacular Press Act
Ans:
(a) The Gutenberg Press, invented by Johann Gutenberg of Strasbourg, was the first printing press in Europe. Growing up on a large agricultural estate, Gutenberg had experience operating olive and wine presses. He invented the printing press around the year 1448, with the Bible being the first book printed.
(b) Erasmus, the Latin scholar, expressed concerns about the advent of printed books. He feared that the widespread circulation of books would lead to the dissemination of rebellious ideas. While acknowledging that some books might offer useful information, Erasmus worried that the majority would contain irrelevant or illogical content, potentially spreading scandalous or irreligious ideas and inciting rebellion.
(c) The Vernacular Press Act was enacted by the British government in India in 1878. This act granted the government extensive powers to censor reports and editorials in vernacular newspapers. If a vernacular paper published any seditious material, it faced the risk of being banned, and its printing machinery could be seized and destroyed.
3.What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
a) Women
b) The poor
c) Reformers
Ans:
(a) Women: The emergence of print culture played a significant role in empowering women as both readers and writers. With increasing literacy rates, women developed a keen interest in reading and writing. Numerous journals and publications began to emphasize the importance of women’s education, and many magazines and books were specifically tailored for women. Print culture provided women with a degree of freedom to explore various issues, particularly those concerning women’s rights and roles in society.
(b) The Poor: As literacy rates rose in Europe and India, printed materials, particularly those intended for entertainment, became more accessible to the poor. In England, “penny magazines” were distributed by peddlers and sold for a penny, making them affordable even for those with limited means. For illiterate individuals, stories and folklore could be orally transmitted by others. Additionally, some book owners offered books for hire at nominal fees, further increasing access to print culture. In 19th-century Madras towns, inexpensive small books were introduced to the market, enabling even the poorest individuals to engage with print culture.
(c) Reformers: Newspapers, journals, and books became powerful tools for social reformers to address prevalent social issues. Figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy utilized publications such as Sambad Kaumudi to raise awareness about the challenges faced by widows. From the 1860s onwards, numerous Bengali women writers, including Kailashbashini Debi, authored books that shed light on the experiences of women, highlighting issues such as confinement to the home, lack of education, exploitation, and unjust treatment by men.
Discuss
1.Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?
Ans:
(i) Spreading of New Ideas: With the advent of print culture, the ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the general public. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, making knowledge more widely available.
(ii) Books as a Medium of Progress: By the eighteenth century, books became a powerful medium for spreading progress and enlightenment, with the potential to bring about societal change on a global scale. They were seen as tools that could liberate society from despotism and tyranny.
(iii) Writings of Scholars: The writings of influential thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Paine, and Voltaire were widely disseminated through printed materials, allowing their ideas about science, rationality, and reason to reach a broader audience. Their works became influential in shaping popular literature and thought.
(iv) Scientific Discoveries: The publication of scientific discoveries, including maps and more accurate scientific diagrams, became widespread with the advent of print culture. Scientists like Isaac Newton were able to publish their findings, influencing a much larger circle of scientifically-minded readers and contributing to the spread of knowledge and understanding.
2.Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.
Ans:
Some individuals, particularly from the upper class, feared the consequences of easily accessible printed books leading to increased literacy among the common people. They were concerned that this might challenge their positions of authority or privilege. Additionally, there were fears that widespread access to printed materials could lead to the dissemination of rebellious or irreligious ideas.
Examples:
(i) In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church attempted to control the spread of printed books by establishing the Index of Prohibited Books, which listed publications deemed heretical or dangerous to the faith.
(ii) In India, the Vernacular Press Act was enacted to impose restrictions on the Indian press and local newspapers, aiming to prevent the publication of materials deemed seditious or inflammatory by the colonial authorities.
3.What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?
Ans :
Public libraries began to be established from the early twentieth century, thereby increasing access to books for the general public. These libraries were primarily situated in cities, towns, and occasionally in affluent villages. Establishing a library was often seen as a means for wealthy local patrons to gain prestige.
During the late nineteenth century, issues related to caste discrimination started to be addressed in various printed tracts and essays. Jyotiba Phule, a Maratha leader and advocate for the rights of “low caste” individuals, penned his work “Gulamgiri” in 1871, highlighting the injustices of the caste system. In the twentieth century, figures like B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, also known as Periyar, in Madras, authored influential writings on caste, which were widely read across India. Additionally, local protest movements and sects produced numerous popular journals and tracts critiquing ancient scriptures and advocating for a more equitable future.
At the very least, these writings helped to raise awareness among poorer segments of society about their rights and position in society. Print media played a crucial role in demonstrating ways in which individuals could strive to improve their socioeconomic circumstances.
4.Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.
Ans :
Print culture played a significant role in fostering the growth of nationalism in India through the following means:
i) By the late 19th century, a plethora of newspapers in Indian vernacular languages emerged, facilitating the dissemination of information and ideas across different linguistic communities.
ii) These newspapers served as platforms for national leaders to publish articles and communicate their ideas to the masses, thereby contributing to the spread of nationalist sentiments.
iii) Print media helped connect people from diverse communities and regions, fostering a sense of pan-Indian identity by conveying news and information across the country.
iv) Nationalist newspapers played a crucial role in exposing colonial misrule and promoting nationalist activities. Their content, written in vernacular languages, was easily accessible to the common people, thereby galvanizing public support for the nationalist cause.
v) For instance, when Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Bal Gangadhar Tilak expressed sympathy for them through his articles. His subsequent arrest sparked protests among the masses, highlighting the influence of print media in mobilizing public opinion.
In conclusion, print culture played a pivotal role in nurturing nationalist sentiments in India, contributing to the eventual struggle for independence.